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White phosphorus, yellow phosphorus or simply tetraphosphorus (P4) exists as molecules of four phosphorus atoms in a tetrahedral structure, joined by six phosphorus—phosphorus single bonds.[1] The free P4 molecule in the gas phase has a P-P bond length of rg = 2.1994(3) Å as was determined by gas electron diffraction.[2] Despite the tetrahedral arrangement the P4 molecules have no significant ring strain and a vapor of P4 molecules is stable. This is due to the nature of bonding in the P4 tetrahedron which can be described by spherical aromaticity or cluster bonding, that is the electrons are highly delocalized. This has been illustrated by calculations of the magnetically induced currents, which sum up to 29 nA/T, much more than in the archetypical aromatic molecule benzene (11 nA/T).[2]
Molten and gaseous white phosphorus also retains the tetrahedral molecules, until 800 °C (1,500 °F; 1,100 K) when it starts decomposing to P
2 molecules.[3]
White phosphorus is a translucent waxy solid that quickly yellows in light, and impure white phosphorus is for this reason called yellow phosphorus. It is toxic, causing severe liver damage on ingestion and phossy jaw from chronic ingestion or inhalation.
It glows greenish in the dark (when exposed to oxygen). It ignites spontaneously in air at about 50 °C (122 °F), and at much lower temperatures if finely divided (due to melting-point depression). Because of this property, white phosphorus is used as a weapon. Phosphorus reacts with oxygen, usually forming two oxides depending on the amount of available oxygen: P4O6 (phosphorus trioxide) when reacted with a limited supply of oxygen, and P4O10 when reacted with excess oxygen. On rare occasions, P4O7, P4O8, and P4O9 are also formed, but in small amounts. This combustion gives phosphorus(V) oxide, which consists of P4O10 tetrahedral with oxygen inserted between the phosphorus atoms and at their vertices:
- P4 + 5 O2 → P4O10
The odour of combustion of this form has a characteristic garlic smell. White phosphorus is only slightly soluble in water and can be stored under water. Indeed, white phosphorus is safe from self-igniting when it is submerged in water; due to this, unreacted white phosphorus can prove hazardous to beachcombers who may collect washed-up samples while unaware of their true nature.[4][5] P4 is soluble in benzene, oils, carbon disulfide, and disulfur dichloride.
The white allotrope can be produced using several methods. In the industrial process, phosphate rock is heated in an electric or fuel-fired furnace in the presence of carbon and silica.[6] Elemental phosphorus is then liberated as a vapour and can be collected under phosphoric acid. An idealized equation for this carbothermal reaction is shown for calcium phosphate (although phosphate rock contains substantial amounts of fluoroapatite):
- 2 Ca3(PO4)2 + 6 SiO2 + 10 C → 6 CaSiO3 + 10 CO + P4
Other polyhedrane analogues
Although white phosphorus forms the tetrahedron, the simplest possible Platonic hydrocarbon, no other polyhedral phosphorus clusters are known.[7] White phosphorus converts to the thermodynamically-stabler red allotrope, but that allotrope is not isolated polyhedra.
Cubane, in particular, is unlikely to form,[7] and the closest approach is the half-phosphorus compound P4(CH)4, produced from phosphaalkynes.[8] Other clusters are more thermodynamically favorable, and some have been partially formed as components of larger polyelemental compounds. Buy phosphorus Cas-7723-14-0 Cas-12185-10-3
Red phosphorus
Red phosphorus may be formed by heating white phosphorus to 300 °C (570 °F) in the absence of air or by exposing white phosphorus to sunlight. Red phosphorus exists as an amorphous network. Upon further heating, the amorphous red phosphorus crystallizes. It has two crystalline forms: violet phosphorus and fibrous red phosphorus. Bulk red phosphorus does not ignite in air at temperatures below 240 °C (460 °F), whereas pieces of white phosphorus ignite at about 30 °C (86 °F). Buy phosphorus Cas-7723-14-0 Cas-12185-10-3
Under standard conditions it is more stable than white phosphorus, but less stable than the thermodynamically stable black phosphorus. The standard enthalpy of formation of red phosphorus is −17.6 kJ/mol.[1] Red phosphorus is kinetically most stable.
It was first presented by Anton von Schrötter before the Vienna Academy of Sciences on December 9, 1847, although others had doubtlessly had this substance in their hands before, such as Berzelius. Buy phosphorus Cas-7723-14-0 Cas-12185-10-3
Phosphorus is a chemical element; it has symbol P and atomic number 15. All elemental forms of phosphorus are highly reactive and are therefore never found in nature. Elemental phosphorus can be prepared artificially, the two most common allotropes being white phosphorus and red phosphorus. With 31P as its only stable isotope, phosphorus has an occurrence in Earth’s crust of about 0.1%, generally as phosphate rock. A member of the pnictogen family, phosphorus readily forms a wide variety of organic and inorganic compounds, with as its main oxidation states +5, +3 and −3.
The isolation of white phosphorus in 1669 by Hennig Brand marked the scientific community’s first discovery of an element since antiquity. The name phosphorus is a reference to the god of the Morning star in Greek mythology, inspired by the faint glow of white phosphorus when exposed to oxygen. This property is also at the origin of the term phosphorescence, meaning glow after illumination, although white phosphorus itself does not exhibit phosphorescence, but chemiluminescence caused by its oxidation. Its high toxicity makes exposure to white phosphorus very dangerous, while its flammability and pyrophoricity can be weaponised in the form of incendiaries. Red phosphorus is less dangerous and is used in matches and fire retardants.
Most industrial production of phosphorus is focused on the mining and transformation of phosphate rock into phosphoric acid for phosphate-based fertilisers. Phosphorus is an essential and often limiting nutrient for plants, and while natural levels are normally maintained over time by the phosphorus cycle, it is too slow for the regeneration of soil that undergoes intensive cultivation. As a consequence, these fertilisers are vital to modern agriculture. The leading producers of phosphate ore in 2024 were China, Morocco, the United States and Russia, with two-thirds of the estimated exploitable phosphate reserves worldwide in Morocco alone. Other applications of phosphorus compounds include pesticides, food additives, and detergents.
Phosphorus is essential to all known forms of life, largely through organophosphates, organic compounds containing the phosphate ion PO3−4 as a functional group. These include DNA, RNA, ATP, and phospholipids, complex compounds fundamental to the functioning of all cells. The main component of bones and teeth, bone mineral, is a modified form of hydroxyapatite, itself a phosphorus mineral.
History
Phosphorus was the first element to be “discovered”, in the sense that it was not known since ancient times.[12] The discovery is credited to the Hamburg alchemist Hennig Brand in 1669, who was attempting to create the fabled philosopher’s stone.[13] To this end, he experimented with urine, which contains considerable quantities of dissolved phosphates from normal metabolism.[14] By letting the urine rot (a step later discovered to be unnecessary),[15] boiling it down to a paste, then distilling it at a high temperature and leading the resulting vapours through water, he obtained a white, waxy substance that glowed in the dark and burned brilliantly. He named it in Latin: phosphorus mirabilis, lit. ‘miraculous bearer of light‘. The word phosphorus itself (Ancient Greek: Φωσφόρος, romanized: Phōsphoros, lit. ‘light-bearer‘) originates from Greek mythology, where it references the god of the morning star, also known as the planet Venus.[14][16]
Brand at first tried to keep the method secret,[17] but later sold the recipe for 200 thalers to Johann Daniel Kraft from Dresden.[14] Kraft toured much of Europe with it, including London, where he met with Robert Boyle. The crucial fact that the substance was made from urine was eventually found out, and Johann Kunckel was able to reproduce it in Sweden in 1678. In 1680, Boyle also managed to make phosphorus and published the method of its manufacture.[14] He was the first to use phosphorus to ignite sulfur-tipped wooden splints, forerunners of modern matches,[18] and also improved the process by using sand in the reaction:
- 4 NaPO3 + 2 SiO2 + 10 C → 2 Na2SiO3 + 10 CO + P4
Boyle’s assistant Ambrose Godfrey-Hanckwitz later made a business of the manufacture of phosphorus.
In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier recognised phosphorus as an element after Johan Gottlieb Gahn and Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed in 1769 that calcium phosphate is found in bones by obtaining elemental phosphorus from bone ash.[10] Bone ash subsequently became the primary industrial source of phosphorus and remained so until the 1840s.[19] The process consisted of several steps.[20][21] First, grinding up the bones into their constituent tricalcium phosphate and treating it with sulfuric acid:
- Ca3(PO4)2 + 2 H2SO4 → Ca(H2PO4)2 + 2 CaSO4
Then, dehydrating the resulting monocalcium phosphate:
- Ca(H2PO4)2 → Ca(PO3)2 + 2 H2O
Finally, mixing the obtained calcium metaphosphate with ground coal or charcoal in an iron pot, and distilling phosphorus vapour out of a retort:
- 3 Ca(PO3)2 + 10 C → Ca3(PO4)2 + 10 CO + P4
PHOSPHORUS YELLOW
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IUPAC Name
Molecular Formula
Molecular Weight
InChI
InChI Key
SMILES
solubility
Solubilities in water: one part/300,000 parts water; in abs alc: one g/400 mL; in abs ether: one g/102 mL; in CHCl3: one g/40 mL; in benzene: one g/35 mL; in CS2: one g/0.8 mL. Solubility in oils: one gram phosphorus dissolves in 80 ml olive oil, 60 ml oil of turpentine, about 100 mL almond oil.
0.33 mg/100 g water at 15 °C; 2.7 g/100 g benzene at 15 °C; 89.8 g/100 g carbon disulfide at 10 °C
Canonical SMILES
- Essential Nutrient: Phosphorus is a vital macronutrient required by plants for various functions, including energy transfer, nucleic acid synthesis, and cell membrane formation . Research focuses on optimizing phosphorus fertilization strategies to increase crop yields while minimizing environmental impact .
- Stress Tolerance: Studies investigate how phosphorus application can improve plant tolerance to abiotic stresses such as drought and salinity. Research suggests that adequate phosphorus levels enhance root development and promote plant growth under stressful conditions .
Medicine and Drug Development
Phosphorus exhibits diverse applications in the field of medical research:
- Drug Design and Development: Phosphorus-containing molecules are incorporated into various drugs due to their unique properties. Research explores the development of novel therapeutic agents with phosphorus, targeting diseases like cancer, inflammation, and infectious diseases .
- Bone Health: Research investigates the role of phosphorus in bone health and its potential impact on bone mineral density and osteoporosis. Studies explore the use of phosphorus supplements and dietary modifications for managing bone health .
Environmental Science and Sustainability
The crucial role of phosphorus in ecosystems and its potential environmental impact drive research in this area:
- Resource Management: Phosphorus is a finite and non-renewable resource. Research focuses on sustainable management practices to minimize phosphorus losses from agricultural lands and wastewater treatment facilities, preventing water pollution and promoting resource conservation .
- Water Quality: Excess phosphorus in water bodies can lead to eutrophication, causing algal blooms and oxygen depletion. Research investigates the environmental impact of phosphorus pollution and develops strategies for mitigation and remediation .
Phosphorus yellow, also known as yellow phosphorus, is one of the allotropes of phosphorus, characterized by its waxy appearance and distinct yellow color. It is a highly reactive and toxic substance, primarily composed of tetrahedral P4 molecules. Yellow phosphorus is known for its ability to ignite spontaneously in air, making it necessary to handle it under water or inert atmospheres to prevent combustion. This allotrope is less stable than red phosphorus and is primarily used in various industrial applications.
Phosphorus, particularly white phosphorus, poses several safety hazards:
- Toxicity: White phosphorus is highly toxic if ingested or inhaled. It can cause severe burns on contact with skin [].
- Flammability: White phosphorus ignites spontaneously in air and can cause severe burns. Exposure to fumes can also be harmful [].
- Reactivity: Phosphorus reacts readily with other elements, including halogens and some metals, posing a fire and explosion risk [].
- Combustion: When exposed to air, yellow phosphorus ignites at approximately 30°C, producing phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5):
4P+5O2→2P2O5
- Hydrolysis: In the presence of water, it reacts to form phosphine (PH3) and phosphoric acid (H3PO4):
P+3H2O→PH3+H3PO4
- Formation of Phosphides: Yellow phosphorus reacts with metals to form metal phosphides, such as calcium phosphide:
2P+3Ca→Ca3P2
These reactions highlight the compound’s reactivity and its potential applications in producing various phosphorus compounds.
Yellow phosphorus exhibits significant biological activity, primarily due to its toxicity. It can cause severe health issues upon exposure, including:
- Hepatotoxicity: Yellow phosphorus is known to damage liver cells, leading to liver failure.
- Nephrotoxicity: It can also affect kidney function.
- Neurotoxicity: Exposure may result in neurological symptoms such as seizures and confusion.
Due to these effects, yellow phosphorus is classified as a hazardous material and requires careful handling in both industrial and laboratory settings.
The synthesis of yellow phosphorus typically involves the thermal reduction of phosphate rock. The process can be summarized as follows:
- Raw Material Preparation: Phosphate rock containing at least 17% P2O5 is mixed with silica and a carbon reductant.
- Sintering: The mixture is sintered in a vacuum furnace at temperatures ranging from 200°C to 1500°C.
- Condensation: The vaporized yellow phosphorus is condensed using water cooling methods.
This method allows for efficient production while minimizing environmental impact by utilizing low-grade phosphate ores .
White Phosphorus, Red Phosphorus, Black Phosphorus, 12185-10-3, 7723-14-0, 12186-10-4
- CAS 12185-10-3 (White phosphorus): Hazardous, military/industrial use.
- CAS 7723-14-0 (Red phosphorus): Safer, consumer and pyrotechnic use, but legally restricted.
- CAS 12186-10-4 (Black phosphorus):Cutting-edge research in electronics.
Physical and Chemical Properties
| Property | White Phosphorus | Red Phosphorus | Black Phosphorus |
|---|---|---|---|
| Appearance | Waxy, yellow-white solid | Red-brown powder | Black, graphite-like |
| Density | 1.82 g/cm³ | 2.20 g/cm³ | 2.69 g/cm³ |
| Melting Point | 44.1°C | 610°C | ~600°C |
| Boiling Point | 280°C | Decomposes, does not boil | Decomposes |
| Reactivity | Highly reactive, ignites in air | More stable, does not ignite in air | Most stable allotrope |
| Toxicity | Highly toxic | Low toxicity | Low toxicity |
Applications
- Agriculture: Phosphorus compounds (phosphates) are essential in fertilizers.
- Matches: Red phosphorus is used on the striking surface of matchboxes.
- Pyrotechnics: Phosphorus is used in flares, igniters, and fireworks.
- Industry: White phosphorus has been used in rodenticides, smoke bombs, and incendiary devices.
- Electronics: Black phosphorus is studied as a semiconductor material for next-generation transistors.
Safety and Legal Considerations
- White phosphorus: Extremely toxic, causes severe burns, and is tightly regulated in international trade.
- Red phosphorus: Safer but restricted in many countries because it can be misused in explosives or illicit drug production.
- Black phosphorus: Mainly used in research; not widely available commercially.
Interesting Facts
- Allotropes: Phosphorus exists in several forms with drastically different properties despite having the same chemical formula (P).
- Bone ash: Historically, phosphorus was obtained from calcined bones, which is why it is sometimes called “bone ash” or “bone powder.”
- Discovery: Phosphorus was first isolated in 1669 by Hennig Brand in Hamburg, who distilled large amounts of urine in search of the philosopher’s stone.
- Modern research: Black phosphorus is considered a promising material in nanotechnology, similar to graphene, due to its excellent electrical properties.
Phosphorus exists in several allotropes, each with its own CAS number and distinct applications. White phosphorus (CAS 12185-10-3) is highly reactive and used in military and industrial contexts, red phosphorus (CAS 7723-14-0) is safer and widely used in matches and pyrotechnics, while black phosphorus (CAS 12186-10-4) is emerging in electronics research.
CAS Numbers and Usage Comparison
| Allotrope | CAS Number | Key Properties | Main Uses |
|---|---|---|---|
| White Phosphorus | 12185-10-3 | Waxy, yellow-white solid; ignites spontaneously in air; highly toxic | – Military: smoke bombs, incendiary devices – Rodenticides (historical) – Chemical synthesis (phosphoric acid) |
| Red Phosphorus | 7723-14-0 | Red-brown powder; stable in air; low toxicity | – Matchbox striking surfaces – Pyrotechnics (flares, igniters) – Flame retardants – Controlled substance due to misuse in explosives |
| Black Phosphorus | 12186-10-4 | Graphite-like crystalline solid; most stable allotrope | – Semiconductor research – Optoelectronics – Potential applications in transistors and batteries |
| Violet Phosphorus | Not widely standardized | Intermediate allotrope; crystalline | – Limited use, mainly academic research |
Detailed Usage Insights
- Agriculture: Historically, phosphorus compounds derived from bone ash were used in fertilizers. Today, phosphates (not elemental phosphorus) dominate fertilizer production.
- Consumer Products: Red phosphorus is critical in safety matches, where it provides controlled ignition without the hazards of white phosphorus.
- Military & Industrial: White phosphorus remains tightly regulated due to its toxic and incendiary properties, used in smoke screens and warfare applications.
Banned or Strictly Restricted
- White Phosphorus (CAS 12185-10-3)
- Extremely toxic and ignites spontaneously in air.
- Its military use (smoke bombs, incendiary weapons) is restricted under international conventions such as the Chemical Weapons Convention.
- Civilian uses (rodenticides, fire bombs) are banned in most countries due to severe health and environmental risks.
- Red Phosphorus (CAS 7723-14-0)
- Safer than white phosphorus, but it can be misused in explosives and illegal drug production.
- Because of this, its sale and transport are tightly controlled. In many countries, you need a license to buy or handle it.
Allowed / Research Use
- Black Phosphorus (CAS 12186-10-4)
- Non-toxic and not banned.
- Mainly used in research laboratories for electronics and nanotechnology.
- Rare and expensive, so not widely available commercially.
- Phosphate Compounds (e.g., calcium phosphate, ammonium phosphate)
- Common in fertilizers, animal feed, and food additives.
- These are not restricted and are essential in agriculture.
Summary
- White phosphorus: banned or heavily restricted.
- Red phosphorus: controlled substance, restricted trade.
- Black phosphorus: allowed, but limited to research.
- Phosphates: freely used in agriculture and food industries.
- Electronics & Nanotech: Black phosphorus is gaining attention as a 2D material similar to graphene, with tunable band gaps suitable for next-generation semiconductors.
Risks and Regulations
- White phosphorus: Extremely toxic; causes severe burns. Its use is restricted under international conventions.
- Red phosphorus: Safer but regulated because it can be diverted into illicit uses (explosives, drug synthesis).
- Black phosphorus: Not toxic, but still rare and expensive; research-grade material only.
Yellow phosphorus has several industrial applications:
- Fertilizers: It serves as a precursor for various phosphorous fertilizers.
- Flame Retardants: Its compounds are used in fireproofing materials.
- Pesticides: Yellow phosphorus is utilized in the formulation of certain pesticides.
- Chemical Synthesis: It acts as a reagent in organic synthesis for producing organophosphorus compounds.
These applications leverage its chemical properties and reactivity.
Studies on the interactions of yellow phosphorus with other compounds have revealed its potential as a precursor for more complex organophosphorus compounds. For example, reactions with alkyl halides yield various phosphines and phosphonates, which are valuable in agricultural chemistry and pharmaceuticals . Additionally, research indicates that yellow phosphorus can interact with metals to form phosphides, which have applications in metallurgy .
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White phosphorus is used by the military in various types of ammunition, and to produce smoke for concealing troop movements and identifying targets. It is also used by industry to produce …
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Phosphorus tetramer (7723-14-0, 12185-10-3) – Chemical Safety, …
Elemental phosphorus can exist in several allotropes, the most common of which are white and red solids. Solid violet and black allotropes are also known. Gaseous phosphorus exists as diphosphorus …
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Phosphorus (red) (stabilised) for synthesis. CAS 7723-14-0, molar mass 30.97 …
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CAS number: 7723-14-0
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EC number: 231-768-7
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EC index number: 015-002-00-7
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Molar Mass: 30.97 g/mol
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White Phosphorus, Red Phosphorus, Black Phosphorus, 12185-10-3, …
White phosphorus (CAS 12185-10-3) is highly reactive and used in military and industrial contexts, red phosphorus (CAS 7723-14-0) is safer and widely used in matches and pyrotechnics, while black …
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Specifications & Purity: Crystal, 99.995% CAS#: 7723-14-0 Formula: P Molecular Weight: 30.97 EC Number: 231-768-7 PubChem CID:5462309 Item Number B433863
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Phosphorus yellow, also known as yellow phosphorus, is one of the allotropes of phosphorus, characterized by its waxy appearance and distinct yellow color. It is a highly reactive and toxic …
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